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Join Us at the World Economic Conference in Orlando, Florida! Nov. 17-19, 2023

2014 War Cyclew 2011 Conference 300x173

Join Us at the 2023 World Economic Conference in Orlando, Florida!

? Dates: November 17, 18, and 19 ? Location: Orlando, Florida, USA (or tune in from home with our virtual ticket options)

Are you ready to unlock the future of economics and finance? Prepare for an unforgettable World Economic Conference experience in sunny Orlando, Florida! This premier event is your gateway to insights, networking, and valuable resources that will supercharge your understanding of the global economy.

?️ What’s Included for In-Person Attendees:

  1. Event Admission: Enjoy reserved seating assigned based on the order of ticket sales, ensuring you have a prime view of every presentation.
  2. Presentation Slides: Gain access to the presentation slides from all speakers, allowing you to delve deeper into the topics discussed.
  3. Video Recording: Can’t make it to a session? No worries! You’ll receive access to video recordings of all conference presentations, so you can catch up at your convenience.
  4. WEC Event App: Connect with the conference on a whole new level. Access presentation slides, bonus reports, recordings, and more via the official WEC Event App.
  5. Bonus Conference Materials: Get a package of bonus conference-related materials, including exclusive bonus reports and videos (as provided by Martin Armstrong).
  6. Morning Information Sessions: Don’t miss out on important morning information sessions, screened on-site in the meeting room on Saturday and Sunday.
  7. Networking Opportunities: Exclusive access to the Event App Networking Feature allows you to connect with fellow attendees, both in-person and virtual, fostering valuable professional relationships.
  8. Culinary Delights: Savor delicious breakfast and lunch on Saturday and Sunday, prepared to keep you energized throughout the day.
  9. Cocktail Reception: Kick off the conference in style at our Friday evening cocktail reception. Meet and mingle with fellow attendees while enjoying refreshing drinks.
  10. Swag Bag: As a token of our appreciation, each in-person attendee will receive a swag bag filled with goodies, including an Armstrong Economics notebook, pen, and an event collector’s mug!

Unable to travel? We also have two different ticket options for those wishing to attend virtually! 

Don’t miss this opportunity to be part of a global gathering of economic and financial minds. Secure your spot at the World Economic Conference in Orlando, Florida, and gain the knowledge, connections, and resources you need to thrive in the world of finance and economics.

Space is limited, so act now and reserve your seat! Visit our Events page to register and join us in sunny Orlando this November.

NEW BOOK Now Available : "Mark Antony & Cleopatra"

Mark Antony Cleopatra Cleopatra Proxy War

Now available at all major retailers!

The eBook will be available shortly.

"THE PLOT TO SEIZE RUSSIA - THE UNTOLD HISTORY"

The Plot to Seize Russia_3Dmockup_2 300x225

The second edition of “The Plot to Seize Russia – The Untold History” is now available for purchase in paperback and hardcover on Amazon and Barnes and Noble. The ebook will be available shortly.

Book description:

“Take care of Russia,” Boris Yeltsin said as he departed his presidency in August 1999. These words were directed at current Russian president, Vladimir Putin. Yeltsin specifically picked Putin as his predecessor to prevent the takeover of Russia.

So, who was Yeltsin warning against? Newly declassified documents from the Clinton Administration prove that there was a plot to rig the Russian election of 2000. These never-before-seen documents confirm numerous attempts to implement pro-Western policies using the Russian oligarchy headed by Boris Berezovsky.

On the other side were the communists who desired a return to the glory days of the Soviet Union. As one of the largest international hedge fund managers, author Martin Armstrong found himself in the middle of perhaps the greatest espionage, or attempt at a regime change for Russia, in modern history.

The Plot to Seize Russia pulls back the curtain to expose the most extraordinary attempt to seize power in modern history, but with the pen rather than armies. These declassified documents reveal a plot that has altered our thinking about the relations between the United States and Russia. The thirst for power comes seething through every line of these papers that alter our perception of reality, change the course of history, and now threaten us with World War III.

Market Talk – July 1, 2025

Market Talk 2017

Market Talk will momentarily pause until July 8, 2025.

ASIA:
The major Asian stock markets had a mixed day today:
• NIKKEI 225 decreased 501.06 points or -1.24% to 39,986.33
• Shanghai increased 13.32 points or 0.39% to 3,457.75
• Hang Seng closed
• ASX 200 decreased 1.20 points or -0.01% to 8,541.10
• SENSEX increased 90.83 points or 0.11% to 83,697.29
• Nifty50 increased 24.75 points or 0.10% to 25,541.80
The major Asian currency markets had a mixed day today:
• AUDUSD decreased 0.00075 or -0.11% to 0.65687
• NZDUSD decreased 0.00074 or -0.12% to 0.60837
• USDJPY decreased 0.066 or -0.05% to 143.740
• USDCNY increased 0.00725 or 0.10% to 7.16376
The above data was collected around 12:22 EST.
Precious Metals:
• Gold increased 36.08 USD/t oz. or 1.09% to 3,339.35
• Silver increased 0.154 USD/t. oz. or 0.43% to 36.254
The above data was collected around 12:24 EST.
EUROPE/EMEA:
The major Europe stock markets had a mixed day today:
• CAC 40 decreased 3.32 points or -0.04% to 7,662.59
• FTSE 100 increased 24.37 points or 0.28% to 8,785.33
• DAX 30 decreased 236.32 points or -0.99% to 23,673.29
The major Europe currency markets had a mixed day today:
• EURUSD decreased 0.00213 or -0.18% to 1.17650
• GBPUSD decreased 0.00125 or -0.09% to 1.37182
• USDCHF increased 0.00065 or 0.08% to 0.79347
The above data was collected around 12:27 EST.

US/AMERICAS:

US Market Closings:

  • Dow advanced 400.17 points or 0.91% to 44,494.94
  • S&P 500 declined 6.94 points or -0.11% to 6,198.01
  • Nasdaq declined 166.85 points or -0.82% to 20,202.89
  • Russell 2000 advanced 20.43 points or 0.94% to 2,195.47

 

Canada Market Closings:

  • TSX Composite advanced 164.79 points or 0.62% to 26,857.11
  • TSX 60 advanced 8.67 points or 0.55% to 1,598.53

 

Brazil Market Closing:

  • Bovespa advanced 825.49 points or 0.59% to 139,680.09
ENERGY:
The oil markets had a mixed day today:
• Crude Oil increased 0.557 USD/BBL or 0.86% to 65.667
• Brent increased 0.425 USD/BBL or 0.64% to 67.165
• Natural gas decreased 0.0788 USD/MMBtu or -2.28% to 3.3772
• Gasoline increased 0.0308 USD/GAL or 1.49% to 2.0957
• Heating oil increased 0.057 USD/GAL or 2.51% to 2.3265
The above data was collected around 12:28 EST.
• Top commodity gainers: Canola (2.22%), Heating Oil (2.51%), Gasoline (1.49%) and Palladium (22.87%)
• Top commodity losers: Cheese (-8.00%), Cocoa (-4.51%), Cotton (-4.25%) and Sugar (-3.55%)
The above data was collected around 12:33 EST.
BONDS:
Japan 1.3920% (-4.39bp), US 2’s 3.78% (+0.060%), US 10’s 4.2670% (+3.9bps); US 30’s 4.79% (+0.016%), Bunds 2.5720% (-2.4bp), France 3.252% (-3.6bp), Italy 3.4690% (-3.5bp), Turkey 30.605% (-66.5bp), Greece 3.3080% (+2.8bp), Portugal 3.036% (-0.55bp); Spain 3.210% (-1.6bp) and UK Gilts 4.4580% (-3.04bp)
The above data was collected around 12:37 EST.

Anti-Government Protests Sweep Serbia

vucic.serbia

Anti-government protests swept throughout Serbia over the weekend, with tens of thousands taking to the streets to demand change. The student-led protests began eight months ago after the government covered up a railway station canopy collapse that claimed the lives of 16 people, but the discontent with government began many years ago. The Serbian people are now demanding early parliamentary elections and the resignation of President Aleksandar Vučić.

Tens of thousands of protestors took to the streets in the capital of Belgrade on Sunday and Monday, blocking a main bridge over the Sava River. In Novi Saf, protestors surrounded the office of the ruling populist Serbian Progressive Party and pelted it with eggs. Vucic deemed these acts domestic terrorism. “Serbia won. You cannot destroy Serbia with violence,” said Vucic. “They consciously wanted to spur bloodshed. The time of accountability is coming.” Yet, protestors believe the current administration is “illegitimate,” and the anger intensified after Vucic announced that the next national vote would not take place before the end of 2026.

Serbia no longer has the freedom of the press as entities closely linked to Vucic and his administration own the majority of Serbian media outlets. Opposition parties do not have access to state television and are silenced. Independent journalists have been murdered in suspicious cases.

Vucic has rotated between prime minister and president roles to retain control for over 12 years. The people believe that the elections are rigged with reports of NGOs participating in voter intimidation and vote-buying. Instances of third-party illegal polling stations were common. Since the ruling party controls all state media, it controls the narrative.

The European Parliament called for an international investigation into voting irregularities after the 2023 election, threatening to withhold funds if it found evidence of voter fraud. Yet, voting was repeated at 43 separate polling stations due to irregularities. Every independent assessment found that while the elections were technically held in a democratic manner, the ruling party has extreme systemic advantages that slanted the election in their favor.

Serbia, a non-NATO member that has refused to impose sanctions on Russia, remains in a unique position that could cause external forces to intervene under the guise of supporting democracy. Aligning with the models, Serbia experienced significant unrest in 2023-2024 over election fraud allegations with tensions coming to a head in March 2025. The Balkans have been a historic battleground for the beginning of global conflict. Based on the model, the unrest will not quell and Serbia, as others, will continue to destabilize into 2027.

Building the Largest Army in Europe

GermanyUkraineWarPropogandaRecruitment

They say it takes a generation to reshape the way a nation views its military allegiance. Germany dwindled its military capacity significantly after its defeat in the last world war, wearing their loss as a badge of shame. Neither the people nor the government wanted to reinvigorate Germany’s military power after the destructive nation building and expansion under the Third Reich. The times have changed, as they always do, and Germany is now on the defensive. German Chancellor Friedrich Merz envisions forming the largest army in Europe.

“Building up our military is our top priority,” said Merz. “From now on, the federal government will provide the military with as much money as it needs to ensure it becomes Europe’s strongest armed force. We are Europe’s most populous country and Europe’s biggest economy, and nothing less should be expected from us. Our partners not only expect this — they demand it.”

Merz stated that Germany will spend 3.5% of its GDP on military defense over the next decade, placing spending as a percentage on par with the United States. Germany already found a loophole to spend on defense indefinitely after declaring an emergency and deciding to ignore prior military spending limits. The Germany government now plans to spend $400 billion on defense alone through 2029. Simultaneously, the nation will not cut social programs or readjust its overall budget as a constitutional amendment now permits lawmakers to bypass the debt brake and borrow in perpetuity without calculating that spending in the federal budget.

War drummer_clear

Germany believes it is on the right side of history due to its backing of Ukraine, the world’s favorite underdog. A refugee favorite, the nation has allowed 1.2 million Ukrainians into its borders since the war began. The nation hit a record-high for population growth in 2022 due to the number of migrants it has accepted.

Now, Germany provides more funding to Ukraine than any other European nation, and is third globally behind the US and UK. Merz has been an outspoken critic of the United States under Donald Trump due to his reluctance to support Ukraine, and he believes he build an iron-clad military so powerful that the entirety of Europe will no longer need to depend on America for defense.

The Bundeswehr, Germany’s military, currently has around 262,000 troops, but it would like to boldly increase its size with 200,000 additional troops and will spend €100 billion in a special fund to modernize its military. German Defense Minister Boris Pistorius said in May 2024 that he was “convinced” that Germany “needs a form of military conscription.” While there is no conscription, Germans are required to register for a potential draft before they turn 18. By June of 2024, I was informed by multiple personal sources that this registration had been extended to include women. One reliable source informed me that her female family friend was sent a notice to register at 59 years old.

Germany is the core foundation of the entire European economy. As they used to say about America, if it catches a cold, the rest of the world suffers pneumonia. Germany’s trajectory toward war is not driven by a public desire for conflict, but by economic, political, and geopolitical pressures—and especially by its entanglement with the European Union, its energy crisis and the collapse of fiscal discipline across Europe. Net Zero initiatives and cutting off cheap Russian gas drastically hurt the German economy by raising energy costs and stifling its auto market. The entire European Union is collapsing, with Germany at the center as the bloc’s primary financier. The EU needs war to maintain the illusion of control, and Germany must be at the frontlines as the bloc’s richest nation.

NYC Mayoral Candidate Wants to Tax White Neighborhoods

WhiteNeighborhoodsNYCmayor

New York City’s far-left mayoral candidate Zohran Mamdani is the human embodiment of the WOKE Socialist agenda. His “progressive” views are based on policies that have failed countless times. Mamdani’s most recent proposal has sparked controversy as he believes that predominantly white neighborhoods should pay higher taxes.

Socialists feed on increased taxation to support the welfare state, which comprises their voter base. They need people who are utterly dependent on big government to gain and maintain control. Equality to a Socialist means that everyone is equal in poverty. Not only does he want to raise property taxes, but he stated that “wealthier and predominantly white neighborhoods” in New York City should disproportionately shoulder the majority of the tax burden.

That’s right—he wants to raise taxes on people based on skin color. Naturally, he would have been banished from politics and forced to step down if he spewed this rhetoric at any other demographic. “That is just a description of what we see right now. It’s not driven by race. It’s more of an assessment of what neighborhoods are being under-taxed versus over-taxed,” the mayoral candidate confessed.

NYC ECM 51.6 year

Unfortunately, our models indicate that NYC will decline sharply in 2026. I warned in 2021 that the city was heading into a crash mode. It is fascinating how the 309.6-year cycle, marked by the time when NYC was on the brink of bankruptcy in 1975, aligns precisely with the year NYC was founded in 1665. It is striking how closely New York has followed the ECM model, which does not bode well for what is to come.

His proposed policy, “Stop the Squeeze on NYC Homeowners,” is based on the belief that less affluent neighborhoods are overtaxed. The plan would redistribute the tax burden from outer boroughs like Brownsville and Jamaica to more affluent neighborhoods where the demographic is predominantly white. In his words, he wants to target “predominantly white” neighborhoods specifically. The additional tax revenue will first fund the coffers of big government, which will multiply in size, and then seek to provide social programs to the “undertaxed,” such as universal childcare, free public transportation, rent freezes, and city-run grocery stores. Astonishing that a candidate could propose price controls and receive support.

Taxing white neighborhoods is one of many methods Mamdani plans to use to squeeze out every last penny from NYC residents. He said he approved of raising corporate taxes, income taxes, property taxes, and sales taxes, among others. The rich may be the first target, but his voter base does not realize that these taxes will eventually be passed on to absolutely everyone. The city could never profit enough in taxes to fund these social programs, and instead of shrinking government or admitting to failed policies, they will continue to raise the cost of living to fund those who completely rely on big government.

There is no quantifiable plan to fund these programs that sound nice on the campaign trail. It is not economically feasible. NYC residents already pay some of the highest taxes in the nation. Those in affluent neighborhoods pay far more into state and local taxes through income, property, sales—the list goes on, as there is nothing that the city will not slap a tax on and continue to raise year after year.

Cities begin to fall into ruin when high-net-worth individuals flee, and the government no longer has access to pockets to dip into. No one would have imagined something of this nature could happen in New York City, but realtors have begun reporting a surge in new home listings as higher-net-worth individuals want to get out before it’s too late. This is merely one of countless disastrous policies Mamdani is proposing.

The only people who succeed in such a system are the ruling elite who enjoy power and wealth created by corruption. The more the government tries to control the economy, the more freedom it must take away to enforce its policies. This is why every socialist system ultimately descends into authoritarianism. History proves this time and time again, yet people continue to believe that “this time will be different.”

Market Talk – June 30, 2025

Market Talk 2017

ASIA:
The major Asian stock markets had a mixed day today:
• NIKKEI 225 increased 336.60 points or 0.84% to 40,487.39
• Shanghai increased 20.20 points or 0.59% to 3,444.43
• Hang Seng decreased 211.87 points or -0.87% to 24,072.28
• ASX 200 increased 28.10 points or 0.33% to 8,542.30
• SENSEX decreased 452.44 points or -0.54% to 83,606.46
• Nifty50 decreased 120.75 points or -0.47% to 25,517.05
The major Asian currency markets had a mixed day today:
• AUDUSD increased 0.00469 or 0.72% to 0.65742
• NZDUSD increased 0.00395 or 0.65% to 0.60902
• USDJPY decreased 0.433 or -0.30% to 144.190
• USDCNY decreased 0.01343 or -0.19% to 7.15843
The above data was collected around 13:04 EST.
Precious Metals:
• Gold increased 28.41 USD/t oz. or 0.87% to 3,296.74
• Silver increased 0.023 USD/t. oz. or 0.06% to 36.003
The above data was collected around 13:06 EST.
.
EUROPE/EMEA:
The major Europe stock markets had a negative day today:
• CAC 40 decreased 25.64 points or -0.33% to 7,665.91
• FTSE 100 decreased 37.95 points or -0.43% to 8,760.96
• DAX 30 decreased 123.61 points or -0.51% to 23,909.61
The major Europe currency markets had a mixed day today:
• EURUSD increased 0.005 or 0.43% to 1.17665
• GBPUSD increased 0.00028 or 0.02% to 1.37143
• USDCHF decreased 0.00408 or -0.51% to 0.79395
The above data was collected around 13:10 EST.
US/AMERICAS:

US Market Closings: 

  • Dow advanced 275.5 points or 0.63% to 44,094.77
  • S&P 500 advanced 31.88 points or 0.52% to 6,204.95
  • Nasdaq advanced 96.28 points or 0.48% to 20,369.73
  • Russell 2000 advanced 2.51 points or 0.12% to 2,175.04

Canada Market Closings:

  • TSX Composite advanced 164.79 points or 0.62% to 26,857.11
  • TSX 60 advanced 8.67 points or 0.55% to 1,598.53

Brazil Market Closing:

  • Bovespa advanced 2,066.25 points or 1.51% to 138,932.05
ENERGY:
The oil markets had a negative day today:
• Crude Oil decreased 0.531 USD/BBL or -0.81% to 64.989
• Brent decreased 0.137 USD/BBL or -0.21% to 66.663
• Natural gas decreased 0.3089 USD/MMBtu or -8.26% to 3.4301
• Gasoline decreased 0.0168 USD/GAL or -0.81% to 2.0639
• Heating oil decreased 0.0304 USD/GAL or -1.32% to 2.2768
The above data was collected around 13:26 EST.
• Top commodity gainers: Canola (2.26%), Sugar (2.43%), Gold (0.87%) and Wheat (0.96%)
• Top commodity losers: Orange Juice (-3.51%), Cocoa (-3.02%), Live Cattle (-4.72%) and Natural Gas (-8.26%)
The above data was collected around 13:33 EST.
BONDS:
Japan 1.4360% (-0.03bp), US 2’s 3.73% (-0.016%), US 10’s 4.2410% (-4.4bps); US 30’s 4.79% (-0.043%), Bunds 2.6000% (+0.3bp), France 3.287% (+2.4bp), Italy 3.4920% (-0.25bp), Turkey 30.01% (-10bp), Greece 3.3100% (+1bp), Portugal 3.063% (+1.8bp); Spain 3.232% (+0.95bp) and UK Gilts 4.4880% (-1.82bp)
The above data was collected around 13:37 EST.

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The World’s First Climate Visa

Tuvalu

The Polynesian island of Tuvalu is composed of nine coral islands across a 420-mile distance in the west-central Pacific Ocean. The ocean has come to reclaim the islands as the natural cycle of climate change has led the surrounding sea level to rise at about 3.9 mm annually, yet the island is only 2 meters above sea level. Australia is now offering the island’s 11,000 inhabitants the opportunity to apply for the world’s first climate visa.

NASA believes that the majority of the islands will be submerged by 2050. Tuvalu has begun the process of digital preservation to maintain records of its culture and landscapes before the islands are reclaimed.

Numerous studies have pointed to dynamic coral processes as the primary reason for rising sea levels. Dynamic coral processes reference the natural order of oceanographic forces that reshape coral reef structures. Certain marine life and reef-building corals produce calcium carbonate and accrue as gravel and sand.  The ocean waves and currents naturally break down these structures over time and cause reefs to shift, contract or expand. The reef masses themselves are living landforms that are susceptible to accretion and erosion. Overall, these are not structurally sound for long-term inhabitation.

Australia is currently opening 280 visas for Tuvalu citizens annually for a small registration fee of $16. Visa applicants will be selected at random. Over 3,000 Tuvaluans have applied for a visa thus far. “This is the first agreement of its kind anywhere in the world, providing a pathway for mobility with dignity as climate impacts worsen,” a spokesperson for Australia’s foreign affairs department said. “At the same time, it will provide Tuvaluans the choice to live, study and work in Australia,” Australia’s foreign affairs department said.

“For the first time, there is a country that has committed legally to come to the aid of Tuvalu, upon request, when Tuvalu encounters a major natural disaster, a health pandemic or military aggression,” Tuvalu Prime Minister Feleti Teo said at the time. “Again, for the first time, there is a country that has committed legally to recognize the future statehood and sovereignty of Tuvalu despite the detrimental impact of climate changed-induced sea level rise.”

Australia is not doing this as a humanitarian act. Australia is offering visas with the stipulation that Tuvalu permits Australia to have a final say in defense pacts. As it may be, Tuvalu is one of the twelve states that maintains relations with Taipei over Beijing.

Tuvalu will be uninhabitable prior to 2050 as skilled workers flee to Australia. Australia, in turn, has control over the small island chain. Tuvaluan is seen as a stark warning to those who fear climate change, and yet, this is a naturally occurring phenomenon that humans cannot create or prevent.

Did Low Voter Turnout Cause Harris to Lose?

Walz.Harris

Some Democrats believe that Kamala Harris would have secured the presidency if it had not been for low voter turnout. Others, like Nancy Pelosi, have blamed Joe Biden for not stepping down sooner. Harris’s running mate Tim Waltz complained that millions of Biden voters stayed home. However, a new study by Pew Research aligns with the findings of a New York Times poll—Harris would have lost either way.

In 2020, 89% of Trump supporters voted compared to 85% of Biden supporters. The following presidential election saw the second-highest voter turnout since 1960 at 64%. However, 26% of eligible voters did not bother to vote in the past three presidential elections. A portion of the people who skipped the 2020 election felt the need to participate in 2024, with 54% of new voters casting a vote for Trump compared to 42% for Harris.

Over that four-year period, Trump retained 85% of his supporters. Harris, on the other hand, only secured 79% of Biden’s voter base from the previous election, and around 15% of those who voted for Biden in 2020 did not bother participating in the next presidential election.

Pew Research asked those who declined to participate in the election how they would have voted, and around 44% said they would have supported Donald Trump compared to 40% who would have backed Kamala Harris. When the same question was posed in 2020, 46% said they would have voted for Biden compared to 35% for Trump. Therefore, if all eligible American voters turned up to the polls, Trump likely would have secured more votes.

Interestingly, immigrants did not immediately back Kamala Harris. Biden beat Trump for the naturalized citizen vote in 2020 by 21 percentage points or 59% to 38%. Naturalized citizens composed 9% of the overall voters in 2024, with 51% backing Harris compared to 47% for Trump.

Record-high inflation under Biden was likely a key reason that Democrats lost a portion of their voter base. Open border policies, rising crime, a fixation on woke ideology, and his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic likely also contributed to Trump’s victory. The American public was not happy with the Build Back Better agenda that Biden and Harris were promoting. Bidenomics failed and the majority is in a worse place financially after four years of Democratic leadership. So no, a higher voter turnout would not have helped Kamala enter the Oval Office.

The Four Faces of War

2025 Cycle of War

QUESTION: You are pessimistic about a resolution in the Iran-Israel conflict. Why is this different from Ukraine or even Vietnam?

Jake

Kaganovich Lazar 1893–1991

ANSWER: This conflict between Iran and Israel is far more serious because it is Religious, not Ethnic, philosophical, or Conquest. The Ukraine conflict is ethnic. Ukrainians wrongly hate Russians because Stalin took their food and starved millions. What they REFUSE to admit was that this was retribution by Stalin’s right-hand man Kaganovich, who was from Kiev and was a Jew who was in charge of the operation that most saw as retribution for Ukrainian neo-Nazis who were slaughtering Jews.

There are four primary distinctions between war and its underlying causes. I will address this in a report on the 2025 Cycle of War, many have asked for an update. I will address how each can be resolved and what history teaches us. Wars unfold for different reasons internationally, whereas civil wars, more often than not, unfold because of unfair and oppressive taxation that favors one group over another.

Lucius Verus AR Parthia Victory

There is also a strong correlation between migrations and civil war, as well as disease. Many plagues have followed invasions by the Mongols, bringing the Black Plague to Europe. Alternatively, returning Roman soldiers from waging war on Persia brought the Antonine Plague, which even claimed the life of Emperor Lucius Verus. Here is his coin celebrating his victory over Parthia (Persia).

Trebonianus Gallus AR Ant Plague

The Plague of Cyprian (249-262 AD) most likely originated in Ethiopia. Evidence strongly suggests it was brought into the Roman Empire via troops returning from campaigns on the eastern frontiers, once again involving Persia. It was probably the war against the Sassanid Persians or conflicts in the region. Here is a coin of Trebonianus Gallus (251-253AD) appealing to Apollo Salvtari, who they hoped would protect society. Descriptions by St. Cyprian (Bishop of Carthage) suggest symptoms consistent with a viral hemorrhagic fever (like Ebola or a filovirus) or possibly a severe form of influenza or typhus. Some scholars also propose a re-emergence or mutated form of smallpox or measles. The exact pathogen remains uncertain.

Hostilian Caesar AU Aureus

Bishop Cyprian of Carthage, whom the plague is named after, and Dionysius of Alexandria) report that bodies were being piled in the streets. There was widespread fear and social disruption. The worst was the significant depopulation of cities and countryside, with an estimated loss of between 10% and 20% of the entire population—the impact on the Roman army and government function was profound. Even the emperor Hostilian died from this plague.

This catastrophic pandemic hit during the tumultuous Crisis of the Third Century. This caused massive mortality, further crippled the economy and military, fueled social unrest, and contributed to the empire’s near-collapse. It coincided with barbarian invasions and political instability.

Columbus Landing

The Europeans who invaded America brought diseases, and we cannot pinpoint a single exact percentage of the Indian population that died from disease. However, the overwhelming consensus among historians, anthropologists, and epidemiologists is that introduced European diseases killed somewhere between 80% and 95% of the Indigenous population of the Americas within roughly a century to a century and a half after contact. This represents a loss of tens of millions of lives and constitutes one of the most profound demographic disasters ever recorded. It fundamentally reshaped the societies, cultures, and landscapes of the entire hemisphere. (Sources: Alfred W. Crosby Jr. The Columbian Exchange; Noble David Cook Born to Die; Charles C. Mann *1491*; William M. Denevan The Native Population of the Americas in 1492)

1918 Influenza Depot

The returning soldiers from World War I also brought back the Spanish Flu. In summary, roughly 675,000 Americans died from the Spanish flu, representing about 0.65% of the population at the time, with the majority of deaths occurring during the final stages of WWI and the immediate months following the Armistice. Again, just

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